On China

Henry Kissinger

Overview: Dr. Henry Kissinger, well known for his work during the Nixon era to open dialogue with China, describes the evolution of modern China in the context of its deeply rooted rich cultural history and ever-adapting international affairs. He begins with a thorough history of Chinese diplomacy spanning the past two millennia, and relates these ideas to more recent events to shed light on the cultural context in which international decisions are made. In observation of the significant impact Mao Zedong had in shaping China’s national identity, Kissinger devotes 230 pages detailing Mao’s philosophies and the events occurring under his leadership. Finally, he focuses on the recent political, economic, and technological advances China has made and its role in the world order. He concludes with a cautiously optimistic discussion of how the PRC might peacefully rise to fulfill the role of a global power.

• In Chapters 1-2, Kissinger provides a detailed history of the Chinese view of international affairs. He describes China as a singular nation due to its longstanding system of government based upon the idea that China is the center of the world and the epitome of civilization. One aspect of this civility is the application of Sun Tzu’s Art of War. How did the Art of War influence China’s system of international relationships? What is the “Mandate of Heaven” and how did it eventually lead to conflict with Britain?
• In Chapter 3, Kissinger summarizes more than a century of international and domestic struggles China faced preceding the establishment of the PRC. After years of decline and international concessions, what stance did the Empress Dowager Cixi take in regards to the Boxer Uprising? What were the consequences?
• In Chapter 4, Mao Zedong’s ideology, motivation, and tactics are discussed broadly. One concept that drove China’s military engagements during this time was related to the Chinese game of ‘Go’ (wei qi). How did wei qi lead to China to act as a “free agent” in the Cold War?
• In Chapter 5, Kissinger describes the strategic motives of the major players, U.S., North Korea, China, and the USSR, that led to the Korean War. He summarizes that all parties came out on the losing end. What were Stalin’s goals in encouraging Kim Il-sung to move for reunification? Were any of his objectives achieved?
• Chapters 6-7, describe a tumultuous era in China wrought with conflicts driven by Mao Zedong’s strong sense of Nationalism and revolutionary spirit. Consider the assessments of the 2nd Taiwan Straits Crisis given by Mao and Zhou at the end of Chapter 6. What were China’s long-term goals for relations with the US?
• In Chapter 8, Kissinger discusses the political environment and steps which led up to the first meeting between President Nixon and Chairman Mao, including the first public discussion of friendly relations during what has been dubbed Ping Pong diplomacy. What was the main driver behind China seeking friendship with the U.S., and what was the major barrier?
• Chapters 9 and 10 attest to the initiation and early years of formal diplomatic relations between the U.S. and PRC. Following Pres. Nixon’s visit to China, the author returned in 1971 to draft the Shanghai Communiqué, which contained very clear language about America’s role in the Asia-Pacific theater. In regards to Taiwan, consider Pres. Nixon’s five principles. Were these principles appropriately addressed in the verbiage of the Communiqué?
• Chapter 11 introduces Deng Xiaoping and Pres. Ford to the Sino-U.S. landscape, but mostly focuses on the final conversations with Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong. Both Mao and Zhou pass away in 1976, each leaving behind significant legacies. In one of his last political efforts, Zhou called for China to strive for “Four Modernizations;” what were these four key sectors?
• Chapters 12-14 provide a sense of how China executed Deng’s vision of “Reform and Opening Up,” normalizing relations with the U.S. and exercising regional strength to counter the spread of Soviet influence. To accentuate its neutrality on global affairs, China adopted the “Three Worlds approach.“ What were the three worlds, and how did this Chinese vision of foreign policy play into its dealings with established superpowers?
• In Chapters 15-16, Kissinger calls attention to the U.S. perspective on the Tiananmen Incident and how popular American sentiments strained U.S.-China relations. This period is backdropped by the looming disintegration of the Soviet Union, which provided additional motivation for China to strengthen its economic power. In 1992, Deng takes his “Southern Tour,” advocating for “Socialism with Chinese characteristics.” How was this ideology described in Ch. 16?
• Chapter 17, Kissinger examines the turbulent relationship between China under Jiang Zemin and the US under Pres. Clinton during the 1990s. The old problems of Taiwan and human rights were constant themes in negotiations. Countering U.S. demands, Jiang stayed firm on his view of China’s interests. In the “oral message” passed through the author to Pres. Clinton, what three things did China “cherish more than Sino-U.S. friendly relations and cooperation”?
• In the final chapter, the current (as of 2011) state of affairs is summarized with a somewhat optimistic view of China’s growing international role. Additionally, Kissinger points out two areas where American and Chinese perspectives tend to diverge, straining what might otherwise be a mutually cooperative relationship. What are these two areas, and what are the Chinese counterpoints to American views?
• In the epilogue, Dr. Kissinger assesses the historical analogy of the Crowe Memorandum, an analysis which concluded that Germany’s rise was directly at odds with Britain’s national interests, foreshadowing the advent of World War I. He provides multiple interpretations of the message as applied to current U.S.-China relations, and offers a hopeful message that the two nations might cooperate to build up the international community and establish a “Pacific community.”